-
1.
Optimizing recovery to support multi-evening cycling competition performance.
Richard, NA, Koehle, MS
European journal of sport science. 2019;(6):811-823
-
-
Free full text
-
Abstract
Road criterium and track bicycle racing occur at high speeds, demand repeated high power outputs, last 10-90 min, and offer little chance for recovery after the event. Consecutive evenings of criterium and track racing are respectively known as speed-week or six-day events and take place in evening hours over the course of a week. Given the schedule and timing of these competitions, return to homeostasis can be compromised. No recommendations exist on how to optimize recovery for cyclists participating in these types of repeated evening competitions. Criterium and track cyclists spend considerable time, near and above the individual lactate threshold and therefore mostly utilize carbohydrate as their chief energy substrate. Henceforth, pre - and post-race nutrition and hydration is examined and recommendations are brought forward for carbohydrate, protein, and fluid intake. As evening high-intensity exercise perturbs sleep, strategies to optimize sleep are discussed and recommendations for an optimal sleep environment are given. Active recovery is examined, and the benefits of a short duration low intensity exercise reviewed. Passive recovery methods such as compression garments and cold water immersion are recommended, while evidence for massage, pneumatic compression devices, and neuromuscular electrical stimulation is still lacking. Optimizing recovery strategies will facilitate a return to the resting state following strenuous night competition.
-
2.
Quantification of NGAL in Urine of Endurance Cycling Athletes.
Machado, JCQ, Volpe, CMO, Vasconcellos, LS, Nogueira-Machado, JA
Journal of physical activity & health. 2018;(9):679-682
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) is a glycoprotein released during early phases of a postischemic kidney in response to kidney injury, inflammation, and oxidative stress. It can be detected in urine after 2 hours of an ischemic event. The aim was to measure and to correlate the level of urine NGAL (uNGAL) with urea, creatinine, and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of endurance cycling athletes (n = 19) and physically active individuals (control, n = 17). METHODS Quantification of urea and creatinine were performed by dry chemical method, and GFR was calculated using the modification of diet in renal disease formula, according to Brazilian Society of Nephrology. uNGAL analyses were performed by enzyme linked immunoabsorbent assay. Analyses were performed 48 hours after exercises. RESULTS uNGAL (in ng/mL) levels, expressed as median, minimum, and maximum, in cyclist group, 387.7 (109.7-1691.0), was significantly higher than that observed in control (physically active) group, 141.5 (4.8-657.0), (P < .05). No significant correlations were observed between uNGAL and creatinine, urea, or GFR (P > .05). CONCLUSIONS Results have pointed to increased uNGAL levels in endurance cycling athletes. Increase of uNGAL in absence of clinical signs or alterations in creatinine, urea, or GFR might suggest that there is metabolic adaptation to endurance exercise, or possibly predisposition to acute kidney injury over time.
-
3.
Tour de France Champions born or made: where do we take the genetics of performance?
Moran, CN, Pitsiladis, YP
Journal of sports sciences. 2017;(14):1411-1419
Abstract
Cyclists in the Tour de France are endurance specialists. Twin and family studies have shown that approximately 50% of the variance in a number of performance-related phenotypes (whether measured at baseline, i.e., natural talent, or in response to training) including those important to cycling can be explained by genetic variation. Research into the specific genetic variants that are responsible has identified over 200 genes containing common genetic variants involved in the genetic predisposition to physical performance. However, typically these explain only a small portion of the variance, perhaps 1-2% and collectively they rarely explain anything approaching the 50% of the variance identified in the twin and family studies. Thus, there is a gap in our understanding of the relationship between heritability and performance. This gap may be bridged by investigation of rare variants or epigenetic variation or by altering study designs through increased collaborations to pool existing cohorts together. Initial findings from such efforts show promising results. This mini-review will touch on the genetics and epigenetics of sporting performance, how they relate to cyclists in the Tour de France and where best future efforts may be directed as well as discuss some preliminary research findings.
-
4.
The Influence of Drinking Fluid on Endurance Cycling Performance: A Meta-Analysis.
Holland, JJ, Skinner, TL, Irwin, CG, Leveritt, MD, Goulet, EDB
Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 2017;(11):2269-2284
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fluid replacement during cycling exercise evolves on a spectrum from simply drinking to thirst to planned structured intake, with both being appropriate recommendations. However, with mixed findings suggesting fluid intake may or may not improve endurance cycling performance (ECP) in a diverse range of trained individuals, there is a clear need for summarised evidence regarding the effect of fluid consumption on ECP. OBJECTIVES (1) Determine the magnitude of the effect of drinking fluid on performance during cycling exercise tasks of various durations, compared with no drinking; (2) examine the relationship between rates of fluid intake and ECP; and (3) establish fluid intake recommendations based on the observations between rates of fluid intake and ECP. STUDY DESIGN Meta-analysis. METHODS Studies were located via database searches and cross-referencing. Performance outcomes were converted to a similar metric to represent percentage change in power output. Fixed- and random-effects weighted mean effect summaries and meta-regression analyses were used to identify the impact of drinking fluid on ECP. RESULTS A limited number of research manuscripts (n = 9) met the inclusion criteria, producing 15 effect estimates. Meta-regression analyses demonstrated that the impact of drinking on ECP under 20-33 °C ambient temperatures was duration-dependent. Fluid consumption of, on average, 0.29 mL/kg body mass/min impaired 1 h high-intensity (80% peak oxygen uptake [[Formula: see text]o2peak]) ECP by -2.5 ± 0.8% (95% confidence interval [CI] -4.1 to -0.9%) compared with no fluid ingestion. In contrast, during >1 to ≤2 h and >2 h moderate-intensity (60-70% [Formula: see text]o2peak) cycling exercise, ECP improved by 2.1 ± 1.5% (95% CI 1.2-2.9%) and 3.2 ± 1.2% (95% CI 0.8-5.6%), respectively, with fluid ingestion compared with no fluid intake. The associated performance benefits were observed when the rates of fluid intake were in the range of 0.15-0.20 mL/kg body mass/min for >1 to ≤2 h cycling exercise and ad libitum or 0.14-0.27 mL/kg body mass/min for cycling exercise >2 h. CONCLUSIONS A rate of fluid consumption of between 0.15 and 0.34 mL/kg body mass/min during high-intensity 1 h cycling exercise is associated with reductions in ECP. When cycling at moderate intensity for >1 to ≤2 h, cyclists should expect a gain in performance of at least 2% if fluid is consumed at a rate of 0.15-0.20 mL/kg body mass/min. For cycling exercise >2 h conducted at moderate intensity, consuming fluid ad libitum or at a rate of 0.14-0.27 mL/kg body mass/min should improve performance by at least 3%. Until further research is conducted, these recommendations should be used as a guide to inform hydration practices.
-
5.
Exertional rhabdomyolysis after spinning: case series and review of the literature.
Ramme, AJ, Vira, S, Alaia, MJ, VAN DE Leuv, J, Rothberg, RC
The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness. 2016;(6):789-93
Abstract
Spinning is a popular indoor stationary cycling program that uses group classes as a motivational tool. Exertional rhabdomyolysis (ER) is frequently reported in athletes and military recruits; however, infrequently it has been reported after spinning class. ER is diagnosed by clinical history, physical exam, and laboratory values. Hydration, electrolyte management, and pain control are key components to treatment of this condition. Severe cases can be complicated by acute renal failure, compartment syndrome, arrhythmia, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. We describe three cases of admission due to rhabdomyolysis after spinning. The diagnosis, admission criteria, and medical treatment of ER are presented in the context of a literature review. A retrospective review of three cases with review of the current literature. The medical and laboratory records of three patient cases were reviewed. A search of the PubMed database was used to perform a comprehensive review of exertional rhabdomyolysis. Our institution's IRB reviewed this study. We report three cases of exertional rhabdomyolysis after spinning and describe the diagnostic workup and medical management of these patients. The diagnosis of ER is made by clinical history, physical exam, and laboratory values. The disease spectrum ranges from mild to severe with the potential of serious complications in some patients. We demonstrate three cases of ER in deconditioned individuals who presented to the emergency department for evaluation. Careful medical management and patient monitoring resulted in improved patient symptomatology and eventual return to physical activity.
-
6.
New Insights into Enhancing Maximal Exercise Performance Through the Use of a Bitter Tastant.
Gam, S, Guelfi, KJ, Fournier, PA
Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 2016;(10):1385-90
Abstract
It is generally acknowledged that for an orally administered ergogenic aid to enhance exercise performance it must first be absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract before exerting its effects. Recently, however, it has been reported that some ergogenic aids can affect exercise performance without prior absorption by the gastrointestinal tract. This is best illustrated by studies that have shown that rinsing the mouth with a carbohydrate (CHO) solution, without swallowing it, significantly improves exercise performance. The ergogenic effects of CHO mouth rinsing in these studies have been attributed to the activation of the brain by afferent taste signals, but the specific mechanisms by which this brain activation translates to enhanced exercise performance have not yet been elucidated. Given the benefits of CHO mouth rinsing for exercise performance, this raises the issue of whether other types of tastants, such as bitter-tasting solutions, may also improve exercise performance. Recently, we performed a series of studies investigating whether the bitter tastant quinine can improve maximal sprint performance in competitive male cyclists, and, if so, to examine some of the possible mechanisms whereby this effect may occur. These studies have shown that mouth rinsing and ingesting a bitter-tasting quinine solution can significantly improve the performance of a maximal cycling sprint. There is also evidence that the ergogenic effect of quinine is mediated, at least in part, by an increase in autonomic nervous system activation and/or corticomotor excitability. The purpose of this article is to discuss the results and implications of these recent studies and to suggest avenues for further research, which may add to the understanding of the way the brain integrates signals from the oral cavity with motor behaviour, as well as uncover novel strategies to improve exercise performance.
-
7.
The Effect of Exercise Training on the Energetic Cost of Cycling.
Montero, D, Lundby, C
Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 2015;(11):1603-18
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE The energetic cost of cycling (CE) is a major contributor to cycling performance but whether CE can be improved by exercise intervention remains uncertain. Here, we sought to systematically review and determine the effect of exercise training on CE in healthy humans. METHODS MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched since their inceptions up until December 2014 for articles assessing the effect of exercise training in healthy subjects on CE, as determined by cycling economy or efficiency. Meta-analyses were performed to determine the standardized mean difference (SMD) in CE between post- and pre-training measurements. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses were used to evaluate potential moderating/confounding factors. RESULTS Fifty-one studies were included after systematic review, comprising a total of 531 healthy subjects (mean age = 20-66 years). Exercise interventions primarily consisted of endurance and/or strength training ranging from 4 to 34 weeks of duration. After data pooling, the meta-analysis revealed that CE was improved with strength training alone or along with endurance training (n = 16, SMD = -0.50, P < 0.0001) but not with endurance training alone (n = 33, SMD = -0.18, P = 0.08). In further subgroup analyses, endurance training alone was effective in improving CE in previously untrained (n = 20, SMD = -0.21, P = 0.04) but not in trained (n = 6, SMD = 0.09, P = 0.75) subjects. The SMD in CE was associated with the duration of training (n = 51, B = -0.03, P = 0.0002). CONCLUSION The current meta-analysis provides evidence that CE is improved by exercise training, particularly when strength training or untrained subjects are included.
-
8.
The impact of intensified training with a high or moderate carbohydrate feeding strategy on resting and exercise-induced oxidative stress.
Wadley, AJ, Killer, SC, Svendsen, IS, Gleeson, M
European journal of applied physiology. 2015;(8):1757-67
Abstract
PURPOSE This study investigated the impact of intensified training (IT) and carbohydrate (CHO) supplementation on resting and exercise-induced oxidative stress. METHODS Male cyclists (n = 13, mean ± SD: age 25 ± 6 years; [Formula: see text] 72 ± 5 ml/kg/min) undertook two 9 day periods of endurance-based IT. In a counter-balanced, crossover and double-blinded study design, participants completed IT whilst ingesting high (H-CHO) or moderate (M-CHO) CHO beverages before (H-CHO: 24 g vs. M-CHO: 2 g), during (H-CHO: 60 g/h vs. M-CHO: 20 g/h) and after training sessions (H-CHO: 44 g vs. M-CHO: 10 g). Participants completed fasted performance trials without CHO on days 2, 6 and 10. Blood samples were taken before and immediately after exercise to assess plasma oxidative stress. RESULTS Resting thiol (-SH) and catalase (CAT) activities decreased following 6 days of IT, independent of CHO condition [-SH (μM oxidised NADPH): H-CHO-14.0 ± 18.8, M-CHO-20.4 ± 20.3 and CAT (nmol/min/ml): H-CHO 12.5 ± 12.5, M-CHO 6.0 ± 4.5; all p < 0.05]. Resting total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was reduced after IT in M-CHO. All exercise bouts elicited significant increases in CAT, TAC, protein carbonylation (PC) and lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH), independent of CHO condition (p < 0.05). The magnitude of increase in PC and LOOH was greater on days 6 and 10 compared to day 2 in both conditions. CONCLUSIONS Short-term IT caused reductions in resting antioxidant capacity in trained cyclists. Exercise-induced increases in PC and LOOH were exaggerated as a result of IT; however, these responses were independent of carbohydrate intake before, during and after the preceding IT sessions.
-
9.
Strategies of dietary carbohydrate manipulation and their effects on performance in cycling time trials.
Correia-Oliveira, CR, Bertuzzi, R, Dal'Molin Kiss, MA, Lima-Silva, AE
Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 2013;(8):707-19
Abstract
The relationship between carbohydrate (CHO) availability and exercise performance has been thoroughly discussed. CHO improves performance in both prolonged, low-intensity and short, high-intensity exercises. Most studies have focused on the effects of CHO supplementation on the performance of constant-load, time-to-exhaustion exercises. Nevertheless, in the last 20 years, there has been a consistent increase in research on the effects of different forms of CHO supplementation (e.g., diet manipulation, CHO supplementation before or during exercise) on performance during closed-loop exercises, such as cycling time trials (TTs). A TT is a highly reproducible exercise and reflects a more realistic scenario of competition compared with the time-to-exhaustion test. CHO manipulation has been performed in various time periods, such as days before, minutes before, during a TT or in a matched manner (e.g. before and during a TT). The purpose of this review is to address the possible effects of these different forms of CHO manipulation on the performance during a cycling TT. Previous data suggest that when a high-CHO diet (~70% of CHO) is consumed before a TT (24-72 h before), the mean power output increases and reduces the TT time. When participants are supplemented with CHO (from 45 to 400 g) prior to a TT (from 2 min to 6 h before the TT), mean power output and time seem to improve due to an increase in CHO oxidation. Similarly, this performance also seems to increase when participants ingest CHO during a TT because such consumption maintains plasma glucose levels. A CHO mouth rinse also improves performance by activating several brain areas related to reward and motor control through CHO receptors in the oral cavity. However, some studies reported controversial results concerning the benefits of CHO on TT performance. Methodological issues such as time of supplementation, quantity, concentration and type of CHO ingested, as well as the TT duration and intensity, should be considered in future studies because small variations in any of these factors may have beneficial or adverse effects on TT performance.
-
10.
Masterful care of the aging triathlete.
Wright, VJ
Sports medicine and arthroscopy review. 2012;(4):231-6
Abstract
Current endurance champions are turning in winning performances in their late 30s and 40s. These masters-age athletes present a special challenge to Sport Medicine practitioners who in previous decades have simply advised masters-aged athletes to stop competing to prevent or treat injury. The fact is, many of the physical changes commonly attributed to aging alone are actually due to the rages of sedentary aging. Recently a body of literature emerged which begins to define what we are capable of with chronic high-level exercise and guides masters-age athletes to train and rehab smarter to stay competitive. The factors influencing the relative declines in overall performance in the various sports include both physiological and lifestyle changes. The following review summarizes age and sex-related changes in triathlon performance, the biology of aging as it relates to endurance sport and factors that affect performance in the masters athletes.