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Nutrition and growth in children.
Matonti, L, Blasetti, A, Chiarelli, F
Minerva pediatrica. 2020;(6):462-471
Abstract
The well-balanced nourishment during "the first 1000 days," the period between conception (day 18) and the age of two years, is quite important for two main reasons. Firstly, the nutritive requirement is high due to the rapid physiological growth and functional development. Then, this period is characterized by extreme susceptibility to external stimuli such as inadequate maternal and infant nutritional status which they can interfere with the different stages of the development process leading to short and long-term consequences for health. Linear growth and brain development are particularly impaired from not sufficient nutrition. In consideration of the irreversible damage of malnutrition, especially on developing brain, an adequate nutrition during the first 1000 days of life is paramount. The aim of this review was to overview the latest scientific evidences on the relationship between nutrition and growth, focusing on nutritional requirements during the first 1000 days, and the impact of inadequate nutrition on brain development and linear growth.
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Which dietary components modulate longitudinal growth?
Gat-Yablonski, G, Yackobovitch-Gavan, M, Phillip, M
Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care. 2017;(3):211-216
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Linear growth in children is sensitive to nutritional status; the growth of the human skeleton requires many different nutritional factors for energy and building blocks: proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and micronutrients. However, what are the specific nutritional factors that are required for proper growth and what is the composition that will be most beneficial is still not known. RECENT FINDINGS Recent findings indicate that macro and micronutrients are required as building blocks and as cofactors for important enzymes. In addition, they stimulate linear growth by acting as regulatory factors and also affect gut microbiome. Some interesting studies regarding the effect of proteins and amino acids are presented. SUMMARY Most studies investigated the effect of replacing a single micronutrient that was deficient; however, in real life, deficiency of one nutritional element is commonly associated with other deficiencies. Therefore, it is a reasonable clinical approach, both in developing and developed countries, to use a mixture of both macro and micronutrients to support growth. How much of each of the components and what is the best composition are still open questions that require more research.
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Impact of elimination diets on nutrition and growth in children with multiple food allergies.
Venter, C, Mazzocchi, A, Maslin, K, Agostoni, C
Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology. 2017;(3):220-226
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Growth and nutritional intake of children with cows' milk allergy and other food allergens has been thoroughly investigated in recent years across many different countries and age groups. An impaired growth in atopic children should not be attributed only to a high number of allergens and foods to be avoided, but to a general condition of 'sub-inflammation', which unfavorably affects the absorption and utilization of fuel and substrates. Atopic study participants may represent a good target for personalized nutrition and in this review we sought to outline many of the issues that should be taken into account when dietitians advise patients regarding food avoidance and expected effects on growth. RECENT FINDINGS The dietary management of food allergy requires appropriate dietary choices to maintain adequate growth, starting with special formulas in infancy. An emerging area of research is the fussy eating related to the exclusion of cow's milk and other foods during infancy and the long-term effects on eating habits and food preferences. SUMMARY Study participants with either mono or polyallergic diseases should ideally undergo the definition of their allergic and metabolic characteristics, to precisely adjust dietary interventions on an individual basis to support the genetic potential of growth and prevent unfavorable outcomes.
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Secular trends in growth.
Fudvoye, J, Parent, AS
Annales d'endocrinologie. 2017;(2):88-91
Abstract
Human adult height has been increasing world-wide for a century and a half. The rate of increase depends on time and place of measurement. Final height appears to have reached a plateau in Northern European countries but it is still increasing in southern European countries as well as Japan. While mean birth length has not changed recently in industrialized countries, the secular trend finally observed in adult height mostly originates during the first 2 years of life. Secular trend in growth is a marker of public health and provides insights into the interaction between growth and environment. It has been shown to be affected by income, social status, infections and nutrition. While genetic factors cannot explain such rapid changes in average population height, epigenetic factors could be the link between growth and environment.
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5.
Effect of dietary phytoestrogens on human growth regulation: imprinting in health & disease.
Griffiths, K, Wilson, DW, Singh, RB, De Meester, F
The Indian journal of medical research. 2014;(Suppl 1):S82-90
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Abstract
This group has advocated a return to the notional Palæolithic diet with fruits, vegetables, roots, leaves, seeds, phytochemical antioxidants and proteins, etc. Phytoestrogens, viz. lignans, isoflavonoids and flavonoids are weak oestrogenic constituents of such a diet and may have a considerable impact on human health and disease. The aim of this paper was to conduct a preliminary overview of about 2000 research-led studies from the 1930s to the present time reported in the literature on flavonoids/isoflavonoids/lignans and to assemble evidence for a future strictly formal literature review on the health benefits and risks of flavonoids in a variety of diseases.
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[Effect of nutrition on growth and neurodevelopment in the preterm infant: a systematic review].
Aguilar Cordero, MJ, Sánchez López, AM, Mur Villar, N, Hermoso Rodríguez, E, Latorre García, J
Nutricion hospitalaria. 2014;(2):716-29
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The energy needs of preterm infants are high and more so when the body weight is lower; for this reason, and to safeguard the infant's future development, it is important to ensure an optimal caloric intake is obtained. AIM: To analyse leading research papers related to nutrition in the preterm newborn and its effects on growth and development. METHOD Systematic review of relevant studies, based on the application of a search strategy, from March to September 2014. The literature search was conducted using document analysis and information synthesis to classify and compile the information extracted, followed by a comparative evaluation. The validity of the articles obtained was corroborated by the weight of findings obtained, by the citations received by the articles and by their applicability to our healthcare environment. RESULTS The search process produced 61 studies that met the selection criteria. The research question addressed has been widely examined and many studies have reported findings related to the nutrition of preterm infants. The direct relationship between nutritional intake and the growth rate of preterm infants is well documented. CONCLUSIONS Proper nutrition in the preterm infant has positive effects on its growth and neurodevelopment. It has been reported that a greater intake of proteins and lipids favours the growth of preterm infants, but not weight gain. Studies have demonstrated the beneficial effect of breast milk on the brain, the retina and the blood vessels; however, there is a negative correlation between adiposity and brain volume.
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Biological determinants linking infant weight gain and child obesity: current knowledge and future directions.
Young, BE, Johnson, SL, Krebs, NF
Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.). 2012;(5):675-86
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Abstract
Childhood obesity rates have reached epidemic proportions. Excessive weight gain in infancy is associated with persistence of elevated weight status and later obesity. In this review, we make the case that weight gain in the first 6 mo is especially predictive of later obesity risk due to the metabolic programming that can occur early postpartum. The current state of knowledge regarding the biological determinants of excess infant weight gain is reviewed, with particular focus on infant feeding choice. Potential mechanisms by which different feeding approaches may program the metabolic profile of the infant, causing the link between early weight gain and later obesity are proposed. These mechanisms are likely highly complex and involve synergistic interactions between endocrine effects and factors that alter the inflammatory and oxidative stress status of the infant. Gaps in current knowledge are highlighted. These include a lack of data describing 1) what type of infant body fat distribution may impart risk and 2) how maternal metabolic dysfunction (obesity and/or diabetes) may affect milk composition and exert downstream effects on infant metabolism. Improved understanding and management of these early postnatal determinants of childhood obesity may have great impact on reducing its prevalence.
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Energy expenditure, nutrition and growth.
Wiskin, AE, Davies, JH, Wootton, SA, Beattie, RM
Archives of disease in childhood. 2011;(6):567-72
Abstract
Fundamental to appropriate nutritional prescription is an understanding of the conditions necessary for growth that include the requirements for energy in health and illness. Energy requirements need to be met by the dietary intake to prevent weight loss. A positive energy balance will result in weight gain. Energy requirement includes several components; the largest is the basal metabolic rate, although physical activity level and the energy needs of growth are important components. All aspects of energy metabolism are likely to be influenced by illness and impact on energy balance. Changes in dietary intake and physical activity are observed clinically but poorly described in most childhood illnesses. Changes in metabolic rate are poorly described in part owing to methodological problems. This review explores changes in energy expenditure associated with health and disease, highlights the lack of evidence underpinning this aspect of practical nutritional support and provides the clinician with a guide to the factors involved in estimating energy requirements, emphasising the importance of measuring the child's response to nutritional support.
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Sex steroids, growth hormone, leptin and the pubertal growth spurt.
Rogol, AD
Endocrine development. 2010;:77-85
Abstract
A normal rate for the linear growth of a child or adolescent is a strong statement for the good general health of that child. Normal growth during childhood is primarily dependent on adequate nutrition, an adequate psychosocial environment, the absence of disease and adequate amounts thyroid hormone and growth hormone (and its downstream product, IGF-1). At adolescence there is the reawakening of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and its interaction with the GH/IGF-1 axis to subserve the pubertal growth spurt. The fat tissue-derived hormone, leptin and its receptor are likely involved in at least two aspects of pubertal development - sexual development itself and the alterations in body composition including the regional distribution of fat and bone mineralization. During the prepubertal years the male female differences in body composition are quite modest, but change remarkably during pubertal development with boys showing a relative decrement in fat percentage and girls a marked increase in concert with rising levels of circulating leptin. The boys show a much greater increase in lean body tissue and the relative proportions of water, muscle and bone. These may be observed as the differential growth of the shoulders and hips. The net effect of these pubertal changes is that the young adult woman has approximately 25% body fat in the 'gynoid' distribution while the male has much more muscle, especially in the shoulders and upper body but only approximately 13% body fat.
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Science base of complementary feeding practice in infancy.
Michaelsen, KF, Larnkjaer, A, Lauritzen, L, Mølgaard, C
Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care. 2010;(3):277-83
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The review presents a selection of publications on complementary feeding in industrialized countries during 2008-2009, after the publication of the ESPGHAN position paper in early 2008. RECENT FINDINGS The WHO recommendation for introduction of complementary feeding at 6 months is adapted in many countries, but the issue is still discussed and many mothers introduce complementary feeding as early as before 4 months. The European Food Safety Authority recently published a comprehensive review on the appropriate age for the introduction of complementary feeding and concluded that introduction between 4 and 6 months is safe. One study showed that delaying introduction of complementary feeding up to 6 months resulted in lower risk of overweight as adult. Milk protein is stimulating insulin-like growth factor-1 and growth and a recent study supports a long-term programming of the insulin-like growth factor-1 axis. There is now a broad consensus that there is no need to delay the introduction of hyperallergenic foods, which might even increase the risk of allergic disease. Randomized studies show that docosahexaenoic acid may affect heart rate and thereby cardiovascular regulation. SUMMARY Despite some recent interesting publications, there is still a need for more large randomized studies to further explore to what degree the time of introduction and composition of complementary foods have effects on growth, development and especially the long-term risk of diseases.