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Nutrition in Menopausal Women: A Narrative Review.
Silva, TR, Oppermann, K, Reis, FM, Spritzer, PM
Nutrients. 2021;13(7)
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Menopause is the permanent cessation of menstrual cycles following the loss of ovarian follicular activity. It is associated with increased prevalence of obesity, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis. The aim of this narrative review was to discuss the current evidence on the association between dietary patterns and clinical endpoints in postmenopausal women (body composition, bone mass, and risk markers for cardiovascular disease), and thereby providing novel insight into the establishment of optimal dietary guidelines for healthy postmenopausal period. Research shows that: - the changes in weight and fat distribution in women are associated with aging and mainly with the decrease in oestradiol levels during peri- and post-menopause. - calcium, vitamin D, vitamin K, selenium, magnesium, and beta-carotene adequate intake could be linked with better BMD in postmenopausal women. - diet is a major modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease and could be a powerful intervention to reduce cardiovascular risks in postmenopausal women. - the Mediterranean diet is composed of healthy foods that have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Authors indicate that future studies evaluating the effects of low-fat, plant-based diets on fat mass in post-menopausal women are needed.
Abstract
Among the various aspects of health promotion and lifestyle adaptation to the postmenopausal period, nutritional habits are essential because they concern all women, can be modified, and impact both longevity and quality of life. In this narrative review, we discuss the current evidence on the association between dietary patterns and clinical endpoints in postmenopausal women, such as body composition, bone mass, and risk markers for cardiovascular disease. Current evidence suggests that low-fat, plant-based diets are associated with beneficial effects on body composition, but further studies are needed to confirm these results in postmenopausal women. The Mediterranean diet pattern along with other healthy habits may help the primary prevention of bone, metabolic, and cardiovascular diseases in the postmenopausal period. It consists on the use of healthy foods that have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and is associated with a small but significant decrease in blood pressure, reduction of fat mass, and improvement in cholesterol levels. These effects remain to be evaluated over a longer period of time, with the assessment of hard outcomes such as bone fractures, diabetes, and coronary ischemia.
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Impact of Diabetes Mellitus on Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Patients: A Meta-Analysis.
Xin, C, Fan, H, Xie, J, Hu, J, Sun, X, Liu, Q
Frontiers in endocrinology. 2021;12:741748
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Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a disease that causes lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). Age, sex hormones, diet, diabetes, obesity, and genetic factors are closely related to the occurrence of BPH. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of diabetes mellitus on LUTS in BPH patients. This study is a systematic review and meta-analysis of eighteen articles consisting of 1685 cases and 4653 controls. Results show that the International Prostate Symptom Score of the diabetic BPH group was significantly higher than that of the non-diabetic BPH group, indicating that diabetes mellitus may aggravate the LUTS of BPH patients. Authors conclude that LUTS in BPH patients is increased in patients with diabetes mellitus compared with controls.
Abstract
BACKGROUND Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a disease that causes lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS), which are the most common urological problem in approximately one-third of the male population aged over 50 years. Some studies have suggested that diabetes may be a risk factor for the development of BPH. However, whether diabetes aggravates the LUTS of BPH patients is still controversial. AIM: To investigate the impact of diabetes mellitus on LUTS in BPH patients. METHODS A literature search was conducted using Web of Science, Embase, PubMed, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure literature databases. This meta-analysis was registered in PROSPERO (registration number: CRD 42020200794). Fixed- or random-effects models were used for analysis according to heterogeneity. The results of the systematic analysis are presented as weighted mean difference (WMD) with the corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS In total, 1308 studies were retrieved from databases and 18 articles comprising 1685 cases and 4653 controls were selected for meta-analysis. The results of the meta-analysis showed that the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) value and prostate volume of BPH patients with diabetes was significantly higher than that of BPH patients without diabetes. CONCLUSIONS This systematic review is the first to evaluate the impact of diabetes mellitus on LUTS in BPH patients. The results of our meta-analysis support the hypothesis that LUTS in BPH patients is increased in patients with diabetes mellitus compared with controls, which suggests that physicians should pay more attention to BPH patients with diabetes mellitus. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION PROSPERO [https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=200794], identifier CRD 42020200794.
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Non-nutritive Sweeteners and Their Associations with Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes.
Walbolt, J, Koh, Y
Journal of obesity & metabolic syndrome. 2020;29(2):114-123
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Nutritive sweeteners (NS) contribute to overall caloric intake, and their adverse effects on metabolic health are well known. Non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) on the other hand, have negligible or no calorific value and are therefore used as replacement of NS to negate their associated health risks. Whilst the consumption of NNS has steadily increased over the recent years, so has the evidence questioning their benefits. Some research suggesting that NNS could be an indirect contributor to the development of metabolic diseases. This review presents a brief compilation of current knowledge relating to NNS and metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Summarised are findings from randomised controlled trials (RCT), prospective cohort studies, observations from animal studies and recent microbiome research. The authors noted that NNS frequently exerted negative influences on health in prospective cohort studies, which observed selected population groups over time. Whilst in controlled trials, NNS often showed neutral or positive health benefits. Following a discussion of possible causes leading to such variations and conflicting outcomes, the authors called for more carefully designed studies to evaluate NNS and their metabolic influences. For clinicians, it may be worth considering further evidence relating to the individual types of sweeteners when evaluating NNS and their risks and benefits on cardiometabolic health.
Abstract
Evidence linking the excessive consumption of nutritive sweeteners (NS) to adverse metabolic health outcomes has led to an increase in consumption of non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS), particularly among the obese and individuals with diabetes. NNS are characterized by having zero-to-negligible caloric load, while also having a sweet taste. They are utilized as a replacement for traditional NS to reduce energy intake and to limit carbohydrate-related negative health outcomes. However, recent studies have suggested that NNS may actually contribute to the development or worsening of metabolic diseases, including metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Thus, it is imperative to understand the NNS efficacy and the relationship between NNS and metabolic diseases.
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Menopause-Associated Lipid Metabolic Disorders and Foods Beneficial for Postmenopausal Women.
Ko, SH, Kim, HS
Nutrients. 2020;12(1)
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Menopause is the absence of menstruation due to the loss of ovarian activity with ageing. During this transition period, changes in hormones, primarily the decline in the oestrogen estradiol, give rise to altered lipid metabolism. An unfavourable lipid profile presents a risk for metabolic disorders, such as cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Post-menopausal changes also lead to shifts in body fat and fat distribution, resulting in an increased tendency for central fat accumulation and obesity. Obesity is associated with insulin resistance. This susceptibility for weight accumulation is possibly also driven by the age-associated decline in skeletal muscle, which reduces metabolic energy expenditure. This review summarizes the physiology of menopause and postmenopause and the consequential impact on lipid metabolism. In addition, there is a discussion of dietary recommendations, nutritional and plant-derived compounds that could support the management of menopause associated changes in lipid levels, metabolic risk factors and obesity. The recommendations discussed include traditional healthy diets and low-calorie diets, with attention drawn to adequate protein intake. Furthermore, the role of probiotics, nutritional and plant-sourced constituents are considered, including Vitamin D, Omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants like Vitamin A, β-carotene, Vitamin C and E, genistein, resveratrol, flavonoids, indoles and capsaicin. The authors advocate sourcing these compounds from a varied whole-foods diet, which would minimize nutrient interactions and absorption issues that can occur with supplementation. This review may be of interest to those supporting the nutritional needs of menopausal and post-menopausal women, that are experiencing or are at risk of experiencing metabolic disorders.
Abstract
Menopause is clinically diagnosed as a condition when a woman has not menstruated for one year. During the menopausal transition period, there is an emergence of various lipid metabolic disorders due to hormonal changes, such as decreased levels of estrogens and increased levels of circulating androgens; these may lead to the development of metabolic syndromes including cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism affects the body fat mass, fat-free mass, fatty acid metabolism, and various aspects of energy metabolism, such as basal metabolic ratio, adiposity, and obesity. Moreover, menopause is also associated with alterations in the levels of various lipids circulating in the blood, such as lipoproteins, apolipoproteins, low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and triacylglycerol (TG). Alterations in lipid metabolism and excessive adipose tissue play a key role in the synthesis of excess fatty acids, adipocytokines, proinflammatory cytokines, and reactive oxygen species, which cause lipid peroxidation and result in the development of insulin resistance, abdominal adiposity, and dyslipidemia. This review discusses dietary recommendations and beneficial compounds, such as vitamin D, omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, phytochemicals-and their food sources-to aid the management of abnormal lipid metabolism in postmenopausal women.
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Association of Major Food Sources of Fructose-Containing Sugars With Incident Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.
Semnani-Azad, Z, Khan, TA, Blanco Mejia, S, de Souza, RJ, Leiter, LA, Kendall, CWC, Hanley, AJ, Sievenpiper, JL
JAMA network open. 2020;3(7):e209993
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Fructose is a type of sugar that has been implicated as a contributor to the development of metabolic syndrome (MetS), which is a condition where large waist circumference, high blood pressure and elevated blood lipid levels may all coexist. However, it remains unclear as to the role of fructose containing foods in the development of MetS. This systematic review and meta-analysis of 13 prospective cohort studies aimed to determine the association of several fructose containing foods and drinks with MetS. The results showed that sugary drinks containing fructose increased the risk of MetS, whereas no associations were found with mixed fruit juice, 100% fruit juice, honey, ice cream or confectionary. Interestingly fruit and yoghurt containing fructose decreased the risk of developing MetS. It was concluded that fructose containing food and drinks are not all equal in their biological effects. Sugary drinks increased the risk of developing MetS but yoghurt and fruit had a protective effect against development. Reasons for this could be due to a generally unhealthier lifestyle in those who consume sugary drinks or may be due to the increased protective effects associated with the vitamins and minerals in fruit and yoghurt. This study could be used by healthcare professionals to recommend a diet eliminating sugary drinks and containing regular fruit and yoghurt intake.
Abstract
Importance: Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) are associated with increased risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS). However, the role of other important food sources of fructose-containing sugars in the development of MetS remains unclear. Objective: To examine the association of major food sources of fructose-containing sugars with incident MetS. Data Sources: MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Library were searched from database inception to March 24, 2020, in addition to manual searches of reference lists from included studies using the following search terms: sugar-sweetened beverages, fruit drink, yogurt, metabolic syndrome, and prospective study. Study Selection: Inclusion criteria included prospective cohort studies of 1 year or longer that investigated the association of important food sources of fructose-containing sugars with incident MetS in participants free of MetS at the start of the study. Data Extraction and Synthesis: Study quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Extreme quantile risk estimates for each food source with MetS incidence were pooled using a random-effects meta-analysis. Interstudy heterogeneity was assessed (Cochran Q statistic) and quantified (I2 statistic). Dose-response analyses were performed using a 1-stage linear mixed-effects model. The certainty of the evidence was assessed using GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation). Results were reported according to the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines. Main Outcomes and Measures: Pooled risk ratio (RR) of incident MetS (pairwise and dose response). Results: Thirteen prospective cohort studies (49 591 participants [median age, 51 years; range, 6-90 years]; 14 205 with MetS) that assessed 8 fructose-containing foods and MetS were included. An adverse linear dose-response association for SSBs (RR for 355 mL/d, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.05-1.23) and an L-shaped protective dose-response association for yogurt (RR for 85 g/d, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.58-0.76) and fruit (RR for 80 g/d, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.78-0.86) was found. Fruit juices (mixed and 100%) had a U-shaped dose-response association with protection at moderate doses (mixed fruit juice: RR for 125 mL/d, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.42-0.79; 100% fruit juice: RR for 125 mL/d, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.61-0.97). Honey, ice cream, and confectionary had no association with MetS incidence. The certainty of the evidence was moderate for SSBs, yogurt, fruit, mixed fruit juice, and 100% fruit juice and very low for all other food sources. Conclusions and Relevance: The findings of this meta-analysis suggest that the adverse association of SSBs with MetS does not extend to other food sources of fructose-containing sugars, with a protective association for yogurt and fruit throughout the dose range and for 100% fruit juice and mixed fruit juices at moderate doses. Therefore, current policies and guidelines on the need to limit sources of free sugars may need to be reexamined.
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Sociodemographic and lifestyle-related risk factors for identifying vulnerable groups for type 2 diabetes: a narrative review with emphasis on data from Europe.
Kyrou, I, Tsigos, C, Mavrogianni, C, Cardon, G, Van Stappen, V, Latomme, J, Kivelä, J, Wikström, K, Tsochev, K, Nanasi, A, et al
BMC endocrine disorders. 2020;20(Suppl 1):134
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Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) results from progressive loss of insulin secretion, which is typically combined with various degrees of insulin resistance. The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of key sociodemographic and lifestyle-related risk factors for identifying vulnerable groups for T2DM with emphasis on data from Europe. This study is a narrative review which includes 101 publications. Literature shows that prevention of T2DM should be a collaborative effort which mobilizes multiple partners/ stakeholders at a national and international (e.g. European) level. In addition, a holistic approach is becoming increasingly essential in order to put into effect multidimensional public health programs and integrated interventions for effective T2DM prevention which will take into account both traditional and socioeconomic/socioecological factors. Authors conclude that a multidimensional approach for the prevention of T2DM may have a broader impact against the current diabesity epidemic within and across countries in Europe.
Abstract
BACKGROUND Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) comprises the vast majority of all diabetes cases in adults, with alarmingly increasing prevalence over the past few decades worldwide. A particularly heavy healthcare burden of diabetes is noted in Europe, where 8.8% of the population aged 20-79 years is estimated to have diabetes according to the International Diabetes Federation. Multiple risk factors are implicated in the pathogenesis of T2DM with complex underlying interplay and intricate gene-environment interactions. Thus, intense research has been focused on studying the role of T2DM risk factors and on identifying vulnerable groups for T2DM in the general population which can then be targeted for prevention interventions. METHODS For this narrative review, we conducted a comprehensive search of the existing literature on T2DM risk factors, focusing on studies in adult cohorts from European countries which were published in English after January 2000. RESULTS Multiple lifestyle-related and sociodemographic factors were identified as related to high T2DM risk, including age, ethnicity, family history, low socioeconomic status, obesity, metabolic syndrome and each of its components, as well as certain unhealthy lifestyle behaviors. As Europe has an increasingly aging population, multiple migrant and ethnic minority groups and significant socioeconomic diversity both within and across different countries, this review focuses not only on modifiable T2DM risk factors, but also on the impact of pertinent demographic and socioeconomic factors. CONCLUSION In addition to other T2DM risk factors, low socioeconomic status can significantly increase the risk for prediabetes and T2DM, but is often overlooked. In multinational and multicultural regions such as Europe, a holistic approach, which will take into account both traditional and socioeconomic/socioecological factors, is becoming increasingly crucial in order to implement multidimensional public health programs and integrated community-based interventions for effective T2DM prevention.
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Non-Nutritive Sweeteners and Their Implications on the Development of Metabolic Syndrome.
Liauchonak, I, Qorri, B, Dawoud, F, Riat, Y, Szewczuk, MR
Nutrients. 2019;11(3)
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Artificial sweeteners, such as aspartame, neotame, saccharin, sucralose, and stevia are widely promoted as low-calorie alternatives to sugar and are known as non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS). Generally, they have been considered as a healthy option to replace sugars, but data is emerging that they may influence obesity and metabolic syndrome (METs) and contribute to the development of type II diabetes. These non-nutritive sweeteners can be thousands of times sweeter than sugar and have been widely adopted by the food industry to help reduce calories, and promote weight loss and diabetic products. It is believed that 25% of children and 41% of adults consume low-calorie sweeteners regularly, with the beverage industry relying heavily on them. However, it is now been shown that these sweeteners can cause imbalances to gut bacteria and interact with taste receptors and insulin signalling. These findings mean that artificial sweeteners may trigger the same hormonal response as sugar by releasing insulin and overtime lead to insulin resistance, obesity, and overall metabolic syndrome. Finally, there is evidence that our body develops a learned response to sweeteners which paradoxically leads to weight gain.
Abstract
Individuals widely use non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) in attempts to lower their overall daily caloric intake, lose weight, and sustain a healthy diet. There are insufficient scientific data that support the safety of consuming NNS. However, recent studies have suggested that NNS consumption can induce gut microbiota dysbiosis and promote glucose intolerance in healthy individuals that may result in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This sequence of events may result in changes in the gut microbiota composition through microRNA (miRNA)-mediated changes. The mechanism(s) by which miRNAs alter gene expression of different bacterial species provides a link between the consumption of NNS and the development of metabolic changes. Another potential mechanism that connects NNS to metabolic changes is the molecular crosstalk between the insulin receptor (IR) and G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Here, we aim to highlight the role of NNS in obesity and discuss IR-GPCR crosstalk and miRNA-mediated changes, in the manipulation of the gut microbiota composition and T2DM pathogenesis.
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Diet-Gut Microbiota Interactions and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM).
Ponzo, V, Fedele, D, Goitre, I, Leone, F, Lezo, A, Monzeglio, C, Finocchiaro, C, Ghigo, E, Bo, S
Nutrients. 2019;11(2)
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Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is an increasing public health concern that affects approximately 5-20% of pregnancies with rising prevalence. The potential impact of specific dietary interventions on the gut bacteria composition and function are of considerable interest to prevent and treat GDM. The aim of the study was to analyse the changes in the gut microbiota and the diet-microbiota interactions occurring during healthy pregnancies and pregnancies complicated by GDM. This study is a systemic review. Literature shows that pregnancies complicated with GDM may have an impaired gut microbiota, and this microbiota can be transmitted to the offspring. Diets can shape the gut microbiota, in fact dietary changes can rapidly change the gut microbiota. However, it generally reverts to the original status with short-term dietary modifications. Authors conclude that the optimal nutritional strategy in GDM patients remains unresolved. It is important that the potential benefits of diet are taken into consideration.
Abstract
Medical nutritional therapy is the first-line approach in managing gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Diet is also a powerful modulator of the gut microbiota, whose impact on insulin resistance and the inflammatory response in the host are well known. Changes in the gut microbiota composition have been described in pregnancies either before the onset of GDM or after its diagnosis. The possible modulation of the gut microbiota by dietary interventions in pregnancy is a topic of emerging interest, in consideration of the potential effects on maternal and consequently neonatal health. To date, very few data from observational studies are available about the associations between diet and the gut microbiota in pregnancy complicated by GDM. In this review, we analyzed the available data and discussed the current knowledge about diet manipulation in order to shape the gut microbiota in pregnancy.
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Adiponectin-leptin ratio: A promising index to estimate adipose tissue dysfunction. Relation with obesity-associated cardiometabolic risk.
Frühbeck, G, Catalán, V, Rodríguez, A, Gómez-Ambrosi, J
Adipocyte. 2018;7(1):57-62
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Obesity is medically defined as a condition of abnormal or excessive fat accumulation in adipose tissue, of sufficient extent to produce adverse health consequences. Presently, adipose tissue has emerged as an extremely active endocrine organ, based on its ability to secrete a plethora of biologically active adipokines [a class of cytokine mediators that are predominantly secreted by adipose cells] such as leptin and adiponectin. Furthermore, obesity is characterized by an increase in circulating leptin concentrations, in parallel to a decrease in blood levels of adiponectin. Thus, the adiponectin/leptin ratio has been suggested as a marker of adipose tissue dysfunction. A dysfunctional adipose tissue, evidenced by a lower adiponectin/ leptin ratio, is a clear contributor to the low-grade chronic inflammation associated with metabolic syndrome. Authors conclude that this ratio is highly and negatively correlated with markers of low-grade chronic inflammation emerging as a useful estimator of obesity- and metabolic syndrome- associated cardiometabolic risk.
Abstract
Obesity is currently the most extended metabolic disturbance worldwide favoring the development of cardiometabolic alterations such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia. Obesity and the metabolic syndrome (MS) are characterized by an increase in circulating leptin concentrations, in parallel to a decrease in blood levels of adiponectin. Consequently, the adiponectin/leptin ratio has been suggested as a maker of adipose tissue dysfunction. This emerging biomarker correlates with insulin resistance better than adiponectin or leptin alone, or even HOMA and is decreased with increasing number of metabolic risk factors having been proposed as a predictive marker for the MS. Moreover, the adiponectin/leptin ratio is negatively correlated with markers of low-grade chronic inflammation. In this sense, an increase in this ratio has been related with reduced atherosclerosis risk as well as with a decreased risk of some types of cancer in epidemiological studies. In this commentary we propose new cutoffs to estimate obesity- and MS-associated cardiometabolic risk according to the adiponectin/leptin ratio and discuss different therapeutic strategies to increase this promising biomarker of metabolic risk.
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Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption in Relation to Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome among Korean Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study from the 2012⁻2016 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES).
Shin, S, Kim, SA, Ha, J, Lim, K
Nutrients. 2018;10(10)
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Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome (MetS) in Korea has increased significantly in the last decade and dietary factors, including the consumption of sugar sweetened drinks, is considered one of the key drivers. Soft drinks, soda coffee, fruit juices, sports drinks and sweetened rice drinks are popular beverages in Asia. Consumption of these is a major source of sugar intake for the Korean population. This study analysed data from over 12,112 participants of the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) to see if the consumption of sugar sweetened beverages was causally linked to obesity and MetS. Food questionnaires were used in the original study to assess which foods and drinks the participants consumed during a 1-year period. Within the study group the number of participants with obesity was 34.9% and MetS was 26.7% respectively. They found that the participants who regularly consumed >4 sugar sweetened beverages per week consumed more calories on average than those who did not drink these beverages. In men, it was linked to higher blood pressure and blood glucose levels whilst in women it linked to a higher body mass index (BMI), increased waist circumference, and elevated cholesterol. Overall drinking 1 sugar sweetened beverage per day increased the risks of obesity in women by 59% and MetS by 61% whilst in men it increased the prevalence of obesity by 41% and MetS by 7%. Therefore drinking sugar sweetened beverages increases the risk of both obesity and MetS.
Abstract
It is well known that the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) increases the risk of developing obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetS). However, there are not many studies investigating the link between SSBs and increased incidences of diseases in the Asian population, and in particular, in Korea. We explored the association of SSB consumption with the risk of developing obesity and MetS among Korean adults (12,112 participants from the 2012⁻2016 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey). We calculated the total SSB consumption frequency by counting each beverage item, including soda beverages, fruit juices, and sweetened rice drinks. Obesity was defined as a body mass index ≥25 kg/m², and MetS was defined using the National Cholesterol Education Program, Adult Treatment Panel III. A survey logistic regression analyses was conducted to examine the association of SSB consumption with obesity and MetS, adjusting for related confounders such as age, energy intake, household income, education, alcohol drinking, smoking status, and physical activity. The SSB consumption was positively associated with an increased risk of the prevalence for obesity (Odd ratio (OR): 1.60; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.23⁻2.09; p for trend = 0.0009) and MetS (OR: 1.61; 95% CI: 1.20⁻2.16; p for trend = 0.0003) among women. In men, SSB consumption only contributed to a higher prevalence of obesity (OR: 1.38; 95% CI: 1.11⁻1.72; p for trend = 0.0041). In conclusion, increased consumption of SSBs was closely linked with a higher prevalence of obesity and MetS in the Korean population.