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1.
Salivary Adipokine and Cytokine Levels as Potential Markers for the Development of Obesity and Metabolic Disorders.
Zyśk, B, Ostrowska, L, Smarkusz-Zarzecka, J
International journal of molecular sciences. 2021;(21)
Abstract
Currently, the number of people suffering from obesity is increasing worldwide. In addition, the disease is affecting younger individuals. Therefore, it is essential to search for new diagnostic methods and markers for early assessment of the risk of obesity, metabolic disorders, and other comorbidities. The discovery of the secretory function of adipose tissue and coexistence of low-grade chronic inflammation with obesity set a new direction in this disease diagnosis using the assessment of the concentration of inflammatory markers secreted by adipose tissue. The aim of this review was to determine, based on previous findings, whether saliva can be useful in the diagnosis of obesity and its early metabolic complications and whether it can be an alternative diagnostic material to serum.
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2.
Salivary Stress/Immunological Markers in Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis.
Finamore, A, Peluso, I, Cauli, O
International journal of molecular sciences. 2020;(22)
Abstract
There is continuous and growing interest in research into new alternatives to standard biomarkers to detect and follow-up disease, reducing physical and psychological stress in patients needing regular and invasive medical examinations for the evaluation of pathologies, including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Saliva is one of the most promising body fluids in the research of new biomarkers, thanks to the large number of molecules it contains. Many molecules present in saliva are often directly correlated to their concentration in the blood but may be affected by the condition of the oral cavity. This means that a careful selection of a specific biomarker is required for each pathology, especially pathologies such as IBD, which may induce inflammation in the oral cavity. Here, we analyze the currently used and the proposed new salivary biomarkers (i.e., calprotectin, cytokines, IgA, cortisol, and oxidative stress markers) for the detection and follow-up of the main subtypes of IBD, known as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.
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3.
Evaluation and review of body fluids saliva, sweat and tear compared to biochemical hydration assessment markers within blood and urine.
Villiger, M, Stoop, R, Vetsch, T, Hohenauer, E, Pini, M, Clarys, P, Pereira, F, Clijsen, R
European journal of clinical nutrition. 2018;(1):69-76
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Abstract
Evaluating and testing hydration status is increasingly requested by rehabilitation, sport, military and performance-related activities. Besides commonly used biochemical hydration assessment markers within blood and urine, which have their advantages and limitations in collection and evaluating hydration status, there are other potential markers present within saliva, sweat or tear. This literature review focuses on body fluids saliva, sweat and tear compared to blood and urine regarding practicality and hydration status influenced by fluid restriction and/or physical activity. The selected articles included healthy subjects, biochemical hydration assessment markers and a well-described (de)hydration procedure. The included studies (n=16) revealed that the setting and the method of collecting respectively accessing body fluids are particularly important aspects to choose the optimal hydration marker. To obtain a sample of saliva is one of the simplest ways to collect body fluids. During exercise and heat exposures, saliva composition might be an effective index but seems to be highly variable. The collection of sweat is a more extensive and time-consuming technique making it more difficult to evaluate dehydration and to make a statement about the hydration status at a particular time. The collection procedure of tear fluid is easy to access and causes very little discomfort to the subject. Tear osmolarity increases with dehydration in parallel to alterations in plasma osmolality and urine-specific gravity. But at the individual level, its sensitivity has to be further determined.
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4.
Salivary Amylase: Digestion and Metabolic Syndrome.
Peyrot des Gachons, C, Breslin, PA
Current diabetes reports. 2016;(10):102
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Abstract
Salivary amylase is a glucose-polymer cleavage enzyme that is produced by the salivary glands. It comprises a small portion of the total amylase excreted, which is mostly made by the pancreas. Amylases digest starch into smaller molecules, ultimately yielding maltose, which in turn is cleaved into two glucose molecules by maltase. Starch comprises a significant portion of the typical human diet for most nationalities. Given that salivary amylase is such a small portion of total amylase, it is unclear why it exists and whether it conveys an evolutionary advantage when ingesting starch. This review will consider the impact of salivary amylase on oral perception, nutrient signaling, anticipatory metabolic reflexes, blood sugar, and its clinical implications for preventing metabolic syndrome and obesity.
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5.
Potential Use of Salivary Markers for Longitudinal Monitoring of Inflammatory Immune Responses to Vaccination.
Lim, PW, Garssen, J, Sandalova, E
Mediators of inflammation. 2016;:6958293
Abstract
Vaccination, designed to trigger a protective immune response against infection, is a trigger for mild inflammatory responses. Vaccination studies can address the question of inflammation initiation, levels, and resolution as well as its regulation for respective studied pathogens. Such studies largely based on analyzing the blood components including specific antibodies and cytokines were usually constrained by number of participants and volume of collected blood sample. Hence, blood-based studies may not be able to cover the full dynamic range of inflammation responses induced by vaccination. In this review, the potential of using saliva in addition to blood for studying the kinetics of inflammatory response studies was assessed. Saliva sampling is noninvasive and has a great potential to be used for studies aimed at analysing the magnitude, time course, and variance in immune responses, including inflammation after vaccination. Based on a literature survey of inflammatory biomarkers that can be determined in saliva and an analysis of how these biomarkers could help to understand the mechanisms and dynamics of immune reactivity and inflammation, we propose that the saliva-based approach might have potential to add substantial value to clinical studies, particularly in vulnerable populations such as infants, toddlers, and ill individuals.
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6.
[Sjögren's syndrome (SS), a review of the subject and saliva as a diagnostic method].
Riega-Torres, JC, Villarreal-Gonzalez, AJ, Ceceñas-Falcon, LÁ, Salas-Alanis, JC
Gaceta medica de Mexico. 2016;(3):371-80
Abstract
Sjögren's syndrome is a chronic autoimmune disease whose main clinical manifestation is oral dryness (xerostomia) and ocular dryness (xerophthalmia). It is characterized by progressive mononuclear infiltration of the exocrine glands and can affect a variety of organ systems. The prevalence of primary Sjögren's syndrome varies from 0.01 up to 4.8%; this variability reflects differences in definition, application of diagnostic criteria, and geographic differences in age groups. The etiology of primary Sjögren's syndrome is unknown, but the interaction between genetic and environmental factors (viruses, hormones, vitamins, stress) is important. There are few reported cases of concordance in monozygotic twins, and it is common for patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome to have relatives with other autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease, psoriasis, and multiple sclerosis. Among the most common findings is hypergammaglobulinemia. Elevated levels of γ-globulins contain autoantibodies directed against nonspecific antigens such as rheumatoid factor, antinuclear antibodies, and cellular antigens SS-A/Ro and SS-B/La. Regarding diagnosis, there have been 11 different published criteria for Sjögren's syndrome since 1965; none have been approved by the American College of Rheumatology or the European League Against Rheumatism. The current criteria were published in 2012 jointly with the progressive advance in the knowledge of the human salivary proteome that has gained wide acceptance in Sjögren's syndrome, with the possibility of using saliva as a useful tool in both diagnosis and prognosis in this field because the analysis of salivary proteins may reflect the state of locally underlying disease of the salivary glands, which are the target organs in this disease.
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Molecular mechanisms of taste recognition: considerations about the role of saliva.
Fábián, TK, Beck, A, Fejérdy, P, Hermann, P, Fábián, G
International journal of molecular sciences. 2015;(3):5945-74
Abstract
The gustatory system plays a critical role in determining food preferences and food intake, in addition to nutritive, energy and electrolyte balance. Fine tuning of the gustatory system is also crucial in this respect. The exact mechanisms that fine tune taste sensitivity are as of yet poorly defined, but it is clear that various effects of saliva on taste recognition are also involved. Specifically those metabolic polypeptides present in the saliva that were classically considered to be gut and appetite hormones (i.e., leptin, ghrelin, insulin, neuropeptide Y, peptide YY) were considered to play a pivotal role. Besides these, data clearly indicate the major role of several other salivary proteins, such as salivary carbonic anhydrase (gustin), proline-rich proteins, cystatins, alpha-amylases, histatins, salivary albumin and mucins. Other proteins like glucagon-like peptide-1, salivary immunoglobulin-A, zinc-α-2-glycoprotein, salivary lactoperoxidase, salivary prolactin-inducible protein and salivary molecular chaperone HSP70/HSPAs were also expected to play an important role. Furthermore, factors including salivary flow rate, buffer capacity and ionic composition of saliva should also be considered. In this paper, the current state of research related to the above and the overall emerging field of taste-related salivary research alongside basic principles of taste perception is reviewed.
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8.
Sialometry: aspects of clinical interest.
Falcão, DP, da Mota, LM, Pires, AL, Bezerra, AC
Revista brasileira de reumatologia. 2013;(6):525-31
Abstract
Whole saliva is a multiglandular secretion complex consisting of gingival fluid, desquamated epithelial cells, microorganisms, products of bacterial metabolism, food debris, leukocytes mucus from the nasal cavity and the pharynx. Saliva has many functions, including tissue repair, tamponage, protection, digestion, taste, antimicrobial action, maintaining tooth integrity and antioxidant defense system. A decrease in salivary flow (hyposalivation) is a common disorder and it is estimated that approximately 20% of the general population have this alteration. Hyposalivation may be due to diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, dehydration, impaired glandular parenchyma by infectious processes, granulomatous diseases or autoimmune and inflammatory conditions (such as Sjogren's syndrome and rheumatoid arthritis), radiotherapy of head and/or neck region, or it may be associated with mood disorders, adverse effects caused by the use of some medications or even be idiopathic. Conventional therapies for the treatment of reduced saliva flow with the use of chemical and gustatory secretagogues are still limited. However, new alternatives have shown great perspective in the treatment of this disorder. To diagnose a patient as having chronic hyposalivation is a challenge in clinical practice and methods of salivary flow assessment are little known by rheumatologists. The serial evaluation of salivary flow is important for the diagnosis and prognosis of certain oral and systemic conditions. This review addresses some aspects related to the role of saliva, the consequences of hyposalivation and methods of salivary flow rate measurement, useful concepts in the daily practice of rheumatology.
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Salivary defense proteins: their network and role in innate and acquired oral immunity.
Fábián, TK, Hermann, P, Beck, A, Fejérdy, P, Fábián, G
International journal of molecular sciences. 2012;(4):4295-4320
Abstract
There are numerous defense proteins present in the saliva. Although some of these molecules are present in rather low concentrations, their effects are additive and/or synergistic, resulting in an efficient molecular defense network of the oral cavity. Moreover, local concentrations of these proteins near the mucosal surfaces (mucosal transudate), periodontal sulcus (gingival crevicular fluid) and oral wounds and ulcers (transudate) may be much greater, and in many cases reinforced by immune and/or inflammatory reactions of the oral mucosa. Some defense proteins, like salivary immunoglobulins and salivary chaperokine HSP70/HSPAs (70 kDa heat shock proteins), are involved in both innate and acquired immunity. Cationic peptides and other defense proteins like lysozyme, bactericidal/permeability increasing protein (BPI), BPI-like proteins, PLUNC (palate lung and nasal epithelial clone) proteins, salivary amylase, cystatins, prolin-rich proteins, mucins, peroxidases, statherin and others are primarily responsible for innate immunity. In this paper, this complex system and function of the salivary defense proteins will be reviewed.
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10.
The role of ghrelin, salivary secretions, and dental care in eating disorders.
Yagi, T, Ueda, H, Amitani, H, Asakawa, A, Miyawaki, S, Inui, A
Nutrients. 2012;(8):967-89
Abstract
Eating disorders, including anorexia and bulimia nervosa, are potentially life-threatening syndromes characterized by severe disturbances in eating behavior. An effective treatment strategy for these conditions remains to be established, as patients with eating disorders tend to suffer from multiple relapses. Because ghrelin was originally discovered in the stomach mucosa, it has been widely studied over the past decade in an effort to uncover its potential roles; these studies have shed light on the mechanism by which ghrelin regulates food intake. Thus, studying ghrelin in the context of eating disorders could improve our understanding of the pathogenesis of eating disorders, possibly resulting in a promising new pharmacological treatment strategy for these patients. In addition, early detection and treatment of eating disorders are critical for ensuring recovery of young patients. Oral symptoms, including mucosal, dental, and saliva abnormalities, are typically observed in the early stages of eating disorders. Although oral care is not directly related to the treatment of eating disorders, knowledge of the oral manifestations of eating disorder patients may aid in early detection, resulting in earlier treatment; thus, oral care might contribute to overall patient management and prognosis. Moreover, ghrelin has also been found in saliva, which may be responsible for oral hygiene and digestion-related functions. This review discusses the pharmacological potential of ghrelin in regulating food-intake and the role of saliva and oral care in young patients with eating disorders.