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1.
Caffeine and resistance exercise: the effects of two caffeine doses and the influence of individual perception of caffeine.
Polito, MD, Grandolfi, K, de Souza, DB
European journal of sport science. 2019;(10):1342-1348
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Abstract
Although caffeine is a widely used ergogenic resource, some information regarding its effects on resistance exercises is still lacking. The objective of the present study was to verify the acute effect of the ingestion of two different doses of caffeine on performance during a session of resistance exercises and to analyze the perception of the subjects in relation to the intake of caffeine. Following a double-blind, randomised, cross-over, controlled, and non-placebo design, 14 trained and healthy men (24.7 ± 6.8 years; 79.8 ± 9.8 kg; 177.3 ± 8.5 cm) performed a training session in chest-press, shoulder-press, and biceps curl exercises (3 sets until exhaustion; 70% 1RM; 3 min rest interval; 2 s for each concentric and eccentric phase) on three non-consecutive days after ingestion of 3 mg.kg-1 caffeine (CAF3), 6 mg.kg-1 caffeine (CAF6), or no substance (CON). Subjects were informed that one of the caffeine doses would be placebo. The total number of repetitions performed in CON (93.6 ± 22.4) was significantly lower than in CAF3 (108.0 ± 19.9, P = 0.02) and in CAF6 (109.3 ± 19.8, P = 0.03) and there were no differences between caffeine doses. Eight subjects noticed that caffeine was in CAF3 and six in CAF6 and there were no differences in the number of repetitions between sessions in which the subjects perceived and did not perceive caffeine. In conclusion, caffeine doses of 3 or 6 mg.kg-1 similarly increased performance in resistance upper limb exercises, independent of the subject's perception of substance ingestion.
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Competitive Bodybuilding: Fitness, Pathology, or Both?
Steele, IH, Pope, HG, Kanayama, G
Harvard review of psychiatry. 2019;(4):233-240
Abstract
The sport of competitive bodybuilding requires an intense regimen of weightlifting and dieting, often aided with muscle-building or fat-burning drugs, and culminating in an on-stage posing competition. Despite these rigorous demands, competitive bodybuilding is popular, with thousands of competitions performed annually around the world. Although many studies have addressed the psychological features of various sports and the athletes who compete in them, few have examined the psychological aspects of bodybuilding. Even fewer studies have specifically examined competitive bodybuilders, as opposed to the much larger group of "recreational" bodybuilders who do not compete. The limited available literature suggests that competitive bodybuilders may show an increased risk for four categories of psychopathology: muscle dysmorphia, eating disorders, abuse of appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs, and exercise dependence. However, in each of these categories, one must carefully distinguish between the planned and dedicated behaviors required for success in the sport, as opposed to frankly pathological behaviors that impair social or occupational function, cause subjective distress, or lead to adverse health consequences. Future work should attempt to better assess the nature and prevalence of these conditions among competitive bodybuilders, with perhaps greatest attention to the issue of drug use.
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Effects of Gua Sha therapy on weightlifting training: a randomized trial.
Wang, X, Jia, B, Zhong, H, Huang, X, Chen, R, Yang, J
Journal of traditional Chinese medicine = Chung i tsa chih ying wen pan. 2019;(4):575-581
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of Gua Sha therapy on weightlifting training. METHODS The sample size was calculated by conducting a pilot study. A total of 44 male weightlifters were randomly assigned to either the Gua Sha group (n = 15), sham scraping group (n = 14), or control group (n = 14). The participants in the Gua Sha group and sham scraping group received 16 sessions of Gua Sha therapy during normal weightlifting training for 8 weeks. No treatment was applied to participants in the control group. The effectiveness of Gua Sha therapy was evaluated by measuring weightlifting ability, the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) of snatch and clean and jerk (85% of 1 repetition maximum), and creatinine kinase (CK), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and immunoglobulin A levels. RESULTS Gua Sha therapy treatment significantly increased weightlifting ability in participants in the Gua Sha group (P < 0.01). The RPE values of snatch and clean and jerk were significantly lower in the Gua Sha group and sham scraping groups compared with the control group (P < 0.05). CK levels were lower and immunoglobulin A levels were significantly higher in the Gua Sha group compared with sham scraping group and control group (both P < 0.05). BUN levels tended to be reduced only in the Gua Sha group. A close correlation between CK levels and the RPE was found in the Gua Sha group. CONCLUSION Gua Sha therapy can facilitate weightlifting ability, reduce the RPE, and inhibit muscle injury by promoting recovery from fatigue caused by normal weightlifting training. Gua Sha therapy could be an effective treatment to complement normal weightlifting training.
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Influence of the "Slingshot" Bench Press Training Aid on Bench Press Kinematics and Neuromuscular Activity in Competitive Powerlifters.
Dugdale, JH, Hunter, AM, Di Virgilio, TG, Macgregor, LJ, Hamilton, DL
Journal of strength and conditioning research. 2019;(2):327-336
Abstract
Dugdale, JH, Hunter, AM, Di Virgilio, TG, Macgregor, LJ, and Hamilton, DL. Influence of the "Slingshot" bench press training aid on bench press kinematics and neuromuscular activity in competitive powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 33(2): 327-336, 2019-This study examined the acute effects of the "Slingshot" (SS) on bench press performance, prime mover surface electromyographic (sEMG) amplitude, and barbell velocity during maximal and submaximal bench pressing in competitive male powerlifters. Fifteen male powerlifters (mean ± SD; age: 27.05 ± 5.94 years; mass: 94.15 ± 13.43 kg; 1 repetition maximum [1RM] bench press: 139.7 ± 16.79 kg) participated in the study. Bench press strength, average barbell velocity, and sEMG amplitude of the prime mover muscles (triceps brachii, pectoralis major, and anterior deltoid) were measured during 2 conditions; "Raw" (without use of any assistance) and "SS" (using the "Slingshot" to perform both the weight achieved during "Raw" 1RM testing [Raw max/SS], and absolute 1RM using the "SS"). The results showed that the "SS" significantly increased bench press 1RM performance by a mean ± SD of 20.67 ± 3.4 kg. Barbell velocity and stick point analysis indicate that this improvement is likely driven by an increase in peak and prestick barbell velocity as triceps root mean square (RMS) was lower throughout all rep max phases with the "SS." The "SS" also caused reductions in RMS, specifically of the triceps at all rep ranges but barbell velocity was better maintained in the last reps of all sets. These data indicate that the "SS" specifically deloaded the triceps muscle throughout all rep ranges and provide assistance to maintaining barbell velocity under fatigue during later repetitions of multiple repetition sets. The "SS" training aid could therefore be used in deload phases of bench press training or as an overreaching and velocity training aid.
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The acute effects of caffeine intake on time under tension and power generated during the bench press movement.
Wilk, M, Krzysztofik, M, Maszczyk, A, Chycki, J, Zajac, A
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2019;(1):8
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability to generate high levels of power is one of the key factors determining success in many sport disciplines. Although there are studies confirming ergogenic effects of caffeine (CAF) on different physical and mental abilities, much controversy remains about its influence on power. The main goal of this study was to assess the effects of caffeine supplementation on time under tension (TUT) and the number of performed repetitions (REP). The second objective was to determine the effects of CAF supplementation on power (P) and movement velocity (V) during the bench press movement. Additionally the authors evaluated whether CAF has a significant effect on velocity of the bar in the eccentric (ECC) phase (VEMEAN) of the bench press movement. METHODS The study included 20 men (20-31 yrs., 87.3 ± 7.7 kg) with at least 2 years of experience in resistance training. The study participants were divided randomly into two groups: the supplemented group ingested caffeine before exercise (GCAF), while the control group was given a placebo (GCON). The exercise protocol consisted of performing the bench press movement with a load equal to 70%1RM with maximal possible velocity (X/0/X/0). The experimental sets were performed to momentary muscular failure. RESULTS The repeated measures ANOVA between the GCAF and GCON groups revealed statistically significant differences in 2 variables. Post-hoc tests demonstrated statistically significant differences in TUT when comparing the group supplemented with caffeine (13.689 s GCAF) to the one ingesting a placebo (15.332 s GCON) at p = 0.002. Significant differences were also observed in mean velocity during the eccentric phase of movement (0.690 m/s in the GCAF to 0.609 in GCON with p = 0.002). There were no significant differences in generated power and velocity in the CON phase of the movement between the GCAF and GCON. CONCLUSIONS The main finding of the study is that CAF ingestion increases movement velocity of the bar in the eccentric phase of the movement, what results in shortening of the time under tension (TUT) needed for performing a specific number of repetitions, without decreasing power and velocity in the CON phase of the movement.
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Higher- Versus Lower-Intensity Strength-Training Taper: Effects on Neuromuscular Performance.
Pritchard, HJ, Barnes, MJ, Stewart, RJ, Keogh, JW, McGuigan, MR
International journal of sports physiology and performance. 2019;(4):458-463
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Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the effects of strength-training tapers of different intensities but equal volume reductions on neuromuscular performance. METHODS Eleven strength-trained men (21.3 [3.3] y, 92.3 [17.6] kg, relative 1-repetition-maximum deadlift 1.9 [0.2] times bodyweight) completed a crossover study. Specifically, two 4-wk strength-training blocks were followed by a taper week with reduced volume (∼70%) involving either increased (5.9%) or decreased (-8.5%) intensity. Testing occurred pretraining (T1), posttraining (T2), and posttaper (T3). Salivary testosterone and cortisol, plasma creatine kinase, a Daily Analysis of Life Demands in Athletes questionnaire, countermovement jump (CMJ), isometric midthigh pull, and isometric bench press were measured. RESULTS CMJ height improved significantly over time (P < .001), with significant increases from T1 (38.0 [5.5] cm) to both T2 (39.3 [5.3] cm; P = .010) and T3 (40.0 [5.3] cm; P = .001) and from T2 to T3 (P = .002). CMJ flight time:contraction time increased significantly over time (P = .004), with significant increases from T1 (0.747 [0.162]) to T2 (0.791 [0.163]; P = .012). Isometric midthigh-pull relative peak force improved significantly over time (P = .033), with significant increases from T1 (34.7 [5.0] N/kg) to T2 (35.9 [4.8] N/kg; P = .013). No significant changes were found between tapers. However, the higher-intensity taper produced small effect-size increases at T3 vs T1 for isometric midthigh-pull relative peak force, CMJ height, and flight time:contraction time, while the lower-intensity taper only produced small effect-size improvements at T3 vs T1 for CMJ height. CONCLUSIONS A strength-training taper with volume reductions had a positive effect on power, with a tendency for the higher-intensity taper to produce more favorable changes in strength and power.
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Effects of placebo on bench throw performance of Paralympic weightlifting athletes: a pilot study.
Costa, GCT, Galvão, L, Bottaro, M, Mota, JF, Pimentel, GD, Gentil, P
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2019;(1):9
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of the present study was to analyse the effects of placebo on bench throw performance in Paralympic weightlifting athletes. METHODS The study involved four Paralympic weightlifting male athletes (age: 40.25 ± 9.91 years, weight: 60.5 ± 8.29 kg, height: 1.60 ± 0.15 m) that visited the laboratory in three occasions, separated by 72 h. In the first session, the athletes were tested for bench press one repetition maximum (1RM). The other two sessions were performed in a randomized counter-balanced order and involved bench throw tests performed either after taking placebo while being informed that the capsule contained caffeine or without taking any substance (control). The bench throw tests were performed with loads corresponding to 50, 60, 70 and 80% of the bench press 1RM. RESULTS According to the results, mean velocity (∆: 0.08 m/s, ES 0.36, p < 0.05) and mean propulsive velocity (∆: 0.11 m/s, ES 0.49, p < 0.05) at 50% of 1RM were significantly higher during placebo than control (p < 0.05). However, there were no difference between control and placebo for 60, 70 and 80% of 1RM (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION Our results suggest that placebo intake, when the athletes were informed they were taking caffeine, might be an efficient strategy to improve the performance of explosive movements in Paralympic weightlifting athletes when using low-loads. This brings the possibility of using placebo in order to increase performance, which might reduce the risks associated with ergogenic aids, such as side-effects and positive doping testing.
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Negative Consequences of Low Energy Availability in Natural Male Bodybuilding: A Review.
Fagerberg, P
International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2018;(4):385-402
Abstract
Energy availability (EA) is a scientific concept describing how much energy is available for basic metabolic functions such as reproduction, immunity, and skeletal homeostasis. Carefully controlled studies on women have shown pathological effects of EA < 30 kcal/kg fat-free mass (FFM), and this state has been labeled low EA (LEA). Bodybuilding is a sport in which athletes compete to show muscular definition, symmetry, and low body fat (BF). The process of contest preparation in bodybuilding includes months of underfeeding, thus increasing the risk of LEA and its negative health consequences. As no well-controlled studies have been conducted in natural male bodybuilders on effects of LEA, the aim of this review was to summarize what can be extrapolated from previous relevant research findings in which EA can be calculated. The reviewed literature indicates that a prolonged EA < 25 kcal/kg FFM results in muscle loss, hormonal imbalances, psychological problems, and negatively affects the cardiovascular system when approaching the lower limits of BF (∼4%-5%) among males. Case studies on natural male bodybuilders who prepare for contest show muscle loss (>40% of total weight loss) with EA < 20 kcal/kg FFM, and in the study with the lowest observed BF (∼4 kg), major mood disturbance and hormonal imbalances co-occurred. Studies also underline the problem of BF overshoot during refeeding after extremes of LEA among males. A more tempered approach (EA > 25 kcal/kg FFM) might result in less muscle loss among natural male bodybuilders who prepare for contest, but more research is needed.
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Acute Effect of Citrulline Malate Supplementation on Upper-Body Resistance Exercise Performance in Recreationally Resistance-Trained Men.
Gonzalez, AM, Spitz, RW, Ghigiarelli, JJ, Sell, KM, Mangine, GT
Journal of strength and conditioning research. 2018;(11):3088-3094
Abstract
Gonzalez, AM, Spitz, RW, Ghigiarelli, JJ, Sell, KM, and Mangine, GT. Acute effect of citrulline malate supplementation on upper-body resistance exercise performance in recreationally resistance-trained men. J Strength Cond Res 32(11): 3088-3094, 2018-To investigate the effect of citrulline malate (CM) supplementation on upper-body resistance exercise performance, 12 recreationally resistance-trained men (21.4 ± 1.6 years; 163.0 ± 46.2 cm; 85.0 ± 12.4 kg) underwent 2 testing sessions administered in a randomized, double-blind fashion. During each visit, participants were provided either 8 g of CM or a placebo (PL) 40 minutes before beginning a standardized warm-up and initiating a barbell bench press resistance exercise protocol consisting of 5 sets of 15 repetitions at 75% 1 repetition maximum with 2-minute rest intervals. Participants were instructed to complete as many repetitions as possible until either reaching 15 repetitions or muscular failure. Total number of repetitions performed and power output were recorded for each set. Subjective measures of energy, focus, fatigue, and perceived exertion, along with muscle thickness of the triceps brachii, were assessed before and after exercise. Significant (p ≤ 0.05) main effects for time were observed for all variables except for subjective feelings of energy (p = 0.085). A group × time interaction (F = 2.86, p = 0.034, n = 0.21) was observed for repetitions performed, where participants performed more (p = 0.015) repetitions on set 3 during PL (5.7 ± 1.2 repetitions) compared with CM (4.6 ± 1.2 repetitions). However, during set 4, participants tended (p = 0.089) to perform more repetitions during CM (4.8 ± 1.8 repetitions) compared with PL (4.3 ± 1.3 repetitions). No other differences were observed between trials. Supplementation with 8 g of CM 40 minutes before the barbell bench press resistance exercise protocol did not increase exercise performance, augment the muscle swelling response to training, or alter subjective measures of focus, energy, and fatigue in recreationally resistance-trained men.
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Physiological responses to different neuromuscular movement task during eccentric bench press.
Wilk, M, Stastny, P, Golas, A, Nawrocka, M, Jelen, K, Zajac, A, Tufano, JJ
Neuro endocrinology letters. 2018;(1):26-32
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Increasing muscular hypertrophy is one of the main reasons for participating in a resistance training program, where different movement task such as eccentric cadences may serve as a potent hypertrophic stimulus and improve movement stability. Aim of this study was to investigate the physiological responses between slow 6/0/2/0 (SLOW) and moderate 2/0/2/0 (REG) eccentric cadences during five sets of bench press to failure using 70% 1 repetition maximum (1RM). MATERIALS AND METHODS Blood samples from sixteen men (21-29y, 85.9±7.7kg, 130±17.5kg bench press 1RM) with at least five years of resistance training experience were taken before, immediately after, 30 min after, and 60 min after both protocols in a randomized cross over study design. RESULTS ANOVA showed that more repetitions were performed during each set in REG and for the entire REG protocol (p<0.001), but total time under tension was greater during SLOW in each set and for the entire protocol (p<0.001). The post-exercise levels of lactate (p=0.02), creatine kinase (p=0.04), and testosterone (p=0.01) were greater after SLOW. Post-exercise cortisol levels decreased in both protocols (p<0.001), but these decreases were not significantly different between protocols. CONCLUSIONS Therefore, intentionally slow eccentric speeds and increased eccentric time under tension seem to be effective for increasing acute hormonal responses after exercise. As such, although a SLOW tempo may decrease the amount of total work (i.e. fewer repetitions with the same load), the increased time under tension seems to drive hormonal responses and neurological response, which may play a large role in stimulating muscle growth, coordination and movement stability.