Abstract
Mature human erythrocytes are dependent on anerobic glycolysis, i.e. catabolism (oxidation) of one glucose molecule to produce two ATP and two lactate molecules. Proliferating tumor cells mimick mature human erythrocytes to glycolytically generate two ATP molecules. They deliberately avoid or switch off their respiration, i.e. tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) machinery and consequently dispense with the production of additional 36 ATP molecules from one glucose molecule. This phenomenon is named aerobic glycolysis or Warburg effect. The present review deals with the fate of a glucose molecule after entering a mature human erythrocyte or a proliferating tumor cell and describes why it is useful for a proliferating tumor cell to imitate a mature erythrocyte. Blood consisting of plasma and cellular components (99% of the cells are erythrocytes) may be regarded as a mobile organ, constantly exercising a direct interaction with other organs. Therefore, the use of drugs, which influences the biological activity of erythrocytes, has an immediate effect on the entire organism. Abbreviations: TCA: tricarboxylic acid cycle; OXPHOS oxidative phosphorylation; GSH: reduced state of glutathione; NFκB: Nuclear factor of kappa B; PKB (Akt): protein kinase B; NOS: nitric oxide synthase; IgG: immune globulin G; H2S: hydrogen sulfide; slanDCs: Human 6-sulfo LacNAc-expressing dendritic cells; IL-8: interleukin-8; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; ROS: reactive oxygen species; PPP: pentose phosphate pathway; NADPH nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen; R5P: ribose-5-phophate; NAD: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; FAD: flavin adenine dinucleotide; O2●-: superoxide anion; G6P: glucose 6-phosphate; HbO2: Oxyhemoglobin; GAPDH glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GAP: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate; 1,3-BPG: 1,3-bis-phosphoglycerate; 2,3-BPG: 2,3-bisphosphoglycerte; PGAM1: phosphoglycerate mutase 1; 3-PG: 3-phosphoglycerate; 2-PG: 2-phosphoglycerate; MIPP1: Multiple inositol polyphosphate phosphatase; mTORC1: mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1; Ru5P: ribulose 5-phosphate; ox-PPP: oxidative branch of pentose phosphate pathway; PGK: phosphoglycerate kinase; IFN-γ: interferon-γ; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; STAT3: signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; Rheb: Ras homolog enriched in Brain; H2O2: hydrogen peroxide; ROOH lipid peroxide; SOD: superoxide dismutase; MRC: mitochondrial respiratory chain; MbFe2+-O2: methmyoglobin; RNR: ribonucleotide reductase; PRPP phosphoribosylpyrophosphate; PPi: pyrophosphate; GSSG oxidized state of glutathione; non-ox-PPP: non-oxidative branch of pentose phosphate pathway; RPI: ribose-5-phosphate isomerase; RPE: ribulose 5-phosphate 3-epimerase; X5P: xylulose 5-phosphate; TK: transketolase; TA: transaldolase; F6P: fructose-6-phosphate; AR2: aldose reductase 2; SD: sorbitol dehydrogenase; HK: hexokinase; MG: mehtylglyoxal; DHAP dihydroxyacetone phosphate; TILs: tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes; MCTs: monocarboxylate transporters; pHi: intracellular pH; Hif-1α: hypoxia-induced factor 1; NHE1: sodium/H+ (Na+/H+) antiporter 1; V-ATPase: vacuolar-type proton ATPase; CAIX carbonic anhydrase; CO2: carbon dioxide; HCO3-: bicarbonate; NBC: sodium/bicarbonate (Na+/HCO3-) symporter; pHe: extracellular pH; GLUT-1: glucose transporter 1; PGK-1: phosphoglycerate kinase 1.
